DCP2 is a comprehensive, 1440-page resource that provides an updated "checkup" for global health and health care. As part of the "health examination," DCP2 asked: What progress has been made in defining and reducing the global burden of disease? How much have countries accomplished in developing and providing efficient, effective, and equitable health care? How can they set and achieve priorities in health services? Once these countries have identified the priorities, how can they deliver interventions to the targeted population in the most cost-effective manner? How can the efforts of the health and closely related sectors (such as nutrition, agriculture, water and sanitation, and education) be integrated to optimize health improvements?

DCP2's answers contribute substantially to global initiatives to improve the health of all peoples by providing a multidisciplinary understanding of these fundamental issues and challenges, as well as effective interventions for the range of communicable and noncommunicable diseases and conditions and risk factors.

Underlying all medical and economic analyses is the appreciation of the need to strengthen health systems so that they can provide highly cost-effective interventions on a large scale. Applying the information, analysis, and strategies set out in DCP2 requires a careful assessment of the local situation, including patterns of disease, institutional capacity, and resources. Combining insights from DCP2 and knowledge of their local situation, actors at many levels—from parliamentarians and health ministers to hospital administrators, health care workers, and concerned citizens—will be able to set priorities, select appropriate interventions, devise better means of delivery, improve management, and be more effective in mobilizing resources. In this manner, the benefits of technical progress in improving health can be extended and shared by all.

Contents

• Dedication
• Foreword
• Preface
• Editors
• Advisory Committee to the Editors
• Contributors
• Acknowledgments
• Disease Control Priorities Project Partners
• Abbreviations and Acronyms
• Summary and Cross-Cutting Themes
  • Chapter 1. Investing in Health
    Dean T. Jamison.
    • The 20th Century Takeoff in Human Health
    • The Economic Benefits of Better Health
    • Why Has Mortality Declined at Such Different Rates in Different Countries?
    • Child Health
    • HIV/AIDS
    • Noncommunicable Disease and Injury
    • Health System Development and Finance
    • Research and Development
    • Development Assistance for Health
    • Conclusions
    • Annex 1.A: The Burden of Disease in 2001
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 2. Intervention Cost-Effectiveness: Overview of Main Messages
    Ramanan Laxminarayan, Jeffrey Chow, and Sonbol A. Shahid-Salles.
    • Priority Setting
    • Methodology
    • Assessing the Evidence on the Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Discussion
    • Annex 2.A: Intervention Categories and Pertinent Policy Instruments
    • Annex 2.B: Summary of Interventions
    • Annex 2.C: Summary of Other Interventions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 3. Strengthening Health Systems
    Anne Mills, Fawzia Rasheed, and Stephen Tollman.
    • History and Current Themes
    • Health System Constraints on the Delivery of Public and Personal Health Services
    • Assessment of Approaches to Strengthen Health System Capacity
    • Targeting Resources
    • Solutions in Low-Capacity Environments
    • Research Priorities
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 4. Priorities for Global Research and Development of Interventions
    Barry R. Bloom, Catherine M. Michaud, John R. La Montagne, and Lone Simonsen.
    • Needs, Context, Opportunities, and Major Challenges
    • Priority Setting
    • Key Recommendations
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 5. Science and Technology for Disease Control: Past, Present, and Future
    David Weatherall, Brian Greenwood, Heng Leng Chee, and Prawase Wasi.
    • Medicine Before the 20th Century
    • Science, Technology, and Medicine in the 20th Century
    • Science, Technology, and Medicine in the Future
    • Summary
    • References
  • Chapter 6. Product Development Priorities
    Adel Mahmoud, Patricia M. Danzon, John H. Barton, and Roy D. Mugerwa.
    • Introduction
    • Pharmaceutical Products
    • Diagnostics
    • Financing and Institutional Arrangements for New Product Development
    • Intellectual Property
    • Regulatory and Liability Issues
    • References
  • Chapter 7. Economic Approaches to Valuing Global Health Research
    David Meltzer.
    • The Value of Health Research
    • Methods of Assessing the Value of Health Research Projects
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 8. Improving the Health of Populations: Lessons of Experience
    Carol Ann Medlin, Mushtaque Chowdhury, Dean T. Jamison, and Anthony Measham.
    • Research Methods
    • Cases
    • General Findings
    • Intervention Type, Programmatic Characteristics, and Policies
    • Conclusion
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 9. Millennium Development Goals for Health: What Will It Take to Accelerate Progress?
    Adam Wagstaff, Mariam Claeson, Robert M. Hecht, Pablo Gottret, and Qiu Fang.
    • The Millennium Development Goals for Health: Progress and Prospects
    • Scaling Up: Defining Interventions and Removing Constraints
    • What Do Countries Need to Do?
    • Costing and Financing Additional Spending for the MDGs
    • References
  • Chapter 10. Gender Differentials in Health
    Mayra Buvinić, André Medici, Elisa Fernández, and Ana Cristina Torres.
    • Antecedents
    • Gender Differentials in Disease Burdens
    • Women's Excess Disease Burdens
    • Priority Disease Groups for Women
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Research Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 11. Fiscal Policies for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
    Rachel Nugent and Felicia Knaul.
    • Use of Fiscal Policy for Health in Developing Countries
    • Subsidies for Health and Health-related Products
    • Taxes and Tax Eexpenditures: Design and Outcomes
    • Fiscal Policy to Promote Health
    • Conclusions
    • Disclaimer and Ackowledgment
    • References
  • Chapter 12. Financing Health Systems in the 21st Century
    George Schieber, Cristian Baeza, Daniel Kress, and Margaret Maier.
    • Health Financing Systems
    • Absorption, Effectiveness, and Sustainability of Donor Funds
    • Health Financing Issues in LICs
    • Health Financing Issues in MICs
    • Conclusions
    • Disclaimer
    • References
  • Chapter 13. Recent Trends and Innovations in Development Assistance for Health
    Robert Hecht and Raj Shah.
    • Trends and Gaps in Development Assistance for Health
    • Making Development Assistance for Health More Effective: Lessons Learned
    • Recent Innovations to Improve the Effectiveness of Development Assistance for Health
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 14. Ethical Issues in Resource Allocation, Research, and New Product Development
    Dan W. Brock and Daniel Wikler.
    • Health Resource Allocation
    • Ethics in Research and New Product Development
    • References
  • Chapter 15. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis for Priority Setting
    Philip Musgrove and Julia Fox-Rushby.
    • Cost-Effectiveness and Priority Setting
    • Definition and Characteristics of Interventions
    • Estimating Effectiveness in Health
    • Determining Costs for Interventions
    • More and Less Comprehensive Data and Analysis
    • Cost-Effectiveness and Population Impact
    • Improvements and Further Applications
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
• Selecting Interventions
  • Chapter 16. Tuberculosis
    Christopher Dye and Katherine Floyd.
    • Tuberculosis Infection, Disease, and Death
    • Epidemiological Burden and Trends
    • Interventions against Tuberculosis
    • Alternative and Complementary Approaches to the Diagnosis and Treatment of Active Disease
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions against Tuberculosis
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Managing Endemic Tuberculosis
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Managing Tuberculosis Outbreaks
    • Summary of Cost-Effectiveness Analyses
    • Research and Development
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 17. Sexually Transmitted Infections
    Sevgi O. Aral, Mead Over, Lisa Manhart, and King K. Holmes.
    • Introduction
    • Bacterial and Viral STIs and Their Sequelae
    • Burden of STIs and Benefits of Control
    • Effectiveness of the Principal Interventions
    • Intervention Costs and Cost-Effectiveness
    • Scaling Up Control Strategies
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 18. HIV/AIDS Prevention and Treatment
    Stefano Bertozzi, Nancy S. Padian, Jeny Wegbreit, Lisa M. DeMaria, Becca Feldman, Helene Gayle, Julian Gold, Robert Grant, and Michael T. Isbell.
    • Obstacles to HIV Control
    • Action under Uncertainty
    • Prevention in Theory and Practice: Using Epidemic Profiles and Contextual Factors to Inform Prevention Guidelines
    • Prevention-Care Synergy
    • Care and Treatment
    • Research Agenda
    • Conclusion
    • Acknowledgments
    • Bibliography
  • Chapter 19. Diarrheal Diseases
    Gerald T. Keusch, Olivier Fontaine, Alok Bhargava, Cynthia Boschi-Pinto, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Eduardo Gotuzzo, Juan Rivera, Jeffrey Chow, Sonbol Shahid-Salles, and Ramanan Laxminarayan.
    • Transmission
    • Laboratory Diagnosis
    • Syndromic Diagnosis
    • Diarrhea, Environment, and Poverty
    • Public Health Significance of Diarrheal Illnesses
    • Preventive Strategies
    • Case Management
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Research Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 20. Vaccine-preventable Diseases
    Logan Brenzel, Lara J. Wolfson, Julia Fox-Rushby, Mark Miller, and Neal A. Halsey.
    • Causes and Epidemiology of Diseases Prevented by Vaccines Used in National Immunization Programs
    • Estimates of the Current Burden of Vaccine-preventable Diseases and of the Burden Averted by Vaccination
    • Expanded Program on Immunization
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Existing Vaccination Programs
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Increasing Immunization Coverage for the Traditional EPI
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Adding New Antigens to the Current Immunization Schedule
    • Financial Sustainability of Immunization Programs
    • Improving the Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Immunization Programs
    • Research Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 21. Conquering Malaria
    Joel G. Breman, Anne Mills, Robert W. Snow, Jo-Ann Mulligan, Christian Lengeler, Kamini Mendis, Brian Sharp, Chantal Morel, Paola Marchesini, Nicholas J. White, Richard W. Steketee, and Ogobara K. Doumbo.
    • Causes, Epidemiology, Manifestations, and Diagnosis
    • Burden of Disease
    • Interventions and Their Effectiveness
    • Economics of Malaria Control Interventions
    • Research Priorities
    • Conclusion
    • References
  • Chapter 22. Tropical Diseases Targeted for Elimination: Chagas Disease, Lymphatic Filariasis, Onchocerciasis, and Leprosy
    Jan H. F. Remme, Piet Feenstra, P. R. Lever, Andre C. Medici, Chantal M. Morel, Mounkaila Noma, K. D. Ramaiah, Frank Richards, A. Seketeli, Gabriel Schmunis, W. H. van Brakel, and Anna Vassall.
    • Disease Characteristics and Transmission
    • Disease Burden
    • Interventions and Their Effectiveness
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Research Needs and Priorities
    • Conclusion
    • References
  • Chapter 23. Tropical Diseases Lacking Adequate Control Measures: Dengue, Leishmaniasis, and African Trypanosomiasis
    P. Cattand, P. Desjeux, M. G. Guzmán, J. Jannin, A. Kroeger, A. Medici, P. Musgrove, M. B. Nathan, A. Shaw, and C. J. Schofield.
    • Disease Characteristics and Transmission
    • Disease Burden
    • Management and Control Strategies
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Problems and Challenges for Disease Control
    • Summary
    • References
  • Chapter 24. Helminth Infections: Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis
    Peter J. Hotez, Donald A. P. Bundy, Kathleen Beegle, Simon Brooker, Lesley Drake, Nilanthi de Silva, Antonio Montresor, Dirk Engels, Matthew Jukes, Lester Chitsulo, Jeffrey Chow, Ramanan Laxminarayan, Catherine Michaud, Jeff Bethony, Rodrigo Correa-Oliveira, Xiao Shuhua, Alan Fenwick, and Lorenzo Savioli.
    • Causes and Characteristics of Helminth Infections
    • Epidemiology of STH Infections and Schistosomiasis
    • Burden of the Disease
    • Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Interventions
    • Averted, Avertable, and Nonavertable Burden
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • References
  • Chapter 25. Acute Respiratory Infections in Children
    Eric A. F. Simoes, Thomas Cherian, Jeffrey Chow, Sonbol A. Shahid-Salles, Ramanan Laxminarayan, and T. Jacob John.
    • Causes of ARIs and the Burden of Disease
    • Interventions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Implementation of ARI Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • References
  • Chapter 26. Maternal and Perinatal Conditions
    Wendy J. Graham, John Cairns, Sohinee Bhattacharya, Colin H. W. Bullough, Zahidul Quayyum, and Khama Rogo.
    • Epidemiology of Maternal and Perinatal Conditions
    • Interventions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Selected Intervention Packages
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Lessons for Implementation
    • Research and Development Needs
    • Conclusions
    • Annex 26.A: CEA Model Assumptions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 27. Newborn Survival
    Joy E. Lawn, Jelka Zupan, Geneviève Begkoyian, and Rudolf Knippenberg.
    • Neonatal Deaths
    • Interventions
    • Marginal Impact and Cost of Scaling Up Universal Neonatal Packages
    • Implementation
    • Research Priorities
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 28. Stunting, Wasting, and Micronutrient Deficiency Disorders
    Laura E. Caulfield, Stephanie A. Richard, Juan A. Rivera, Philip Musgrove, and Robert E. Black.
    • Nature, Causes, and Burden of Undernutrition
    • Interventions
    • Intervention Costs and Cost-Effectiveness
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Program Implementation: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 29. Health Service Interventions for Cancer Control in Developing Countries
    Martin L. Brown, Sue J. Goldie, Gerrit Draisma, Joe Harford, and Joseph Lipscomb.
    • Burden of Cancer in Developing Countries
    • Types of Interventions for Cancer Control
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Cancer Control Interventions
    • Applicability of Cost-Effectiveness Studies from Developed to Developing Countries
    • Research Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 30. Diabetes: The Pandemic and Potential Solutions
    K. M. Venkat Narayan, Ping Zhang, Alka M. Kanaya, Desmond E. Williams, Michael M. Engelgau, Giuseppina Imperatore, and Ambady Ramachandran.
    • Nature and Distribution of Diabetes
    • Interventions and Delivery Modes
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions and Priorities
    • Lessons and Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 31. Mental Disorders
    Steven Hyman, Dan Chisholm, Ronald Kessler, Vikram Patel, and Harvey Whiteford.
    • Schizophrenia and Nonaffective Psychoses
    • Mood Disorders
    • Anxiety Disorders
    • Cost-Effectiveness Methods and Results
    • Policy and Service Implications
    • Conclusion: Public Support for a Cost-Effective Intervention Package
    • References
  • Chapter 32. Neurological Disorders
    Vijay Chandra, Rajesh Pandav, Ramanan Laxminarayan, Caroline Tanner, Bala Manyam, Sadanand Rajkumar, Donald Silberberg, Carol Brayne, Jeffrey Chow, Susan Herman, Fleur Hourihan, Scott Kasner, Luis Morillo, Adesola Ogunniyi, William Theodore, and Zhen-Xin Zhang.
    • AD and Other Dementias
    • Epilepsy
    • Parkinson's Disease
    • Stroke
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions in Developing Countries
    • Recommendations
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Missed Opportunities
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 33. Cardiovascular Disease
    Thomas Gaziano, K. Srinath Reddy, Fred Paccaud, Sue Horton, and Vivek Chaturvedi.
    • Epidemiology of CVD
    • Burden of Disease
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Research and Development
    • Conclusions: Pitfalls and Promises
    • References
  • Chapter 34. Inherited Disorders of Hemoglobin
    David Weatherall, Olu Akinyanju, Suthat Fucharoen, Nancy Olivieri, and Philip Musgrove.
    • Introduction
    • Burden of Disease
    • Control and Treatment
    • Costs and Effectiveness of Diagnosis and Management
    • Options for Control and Management of Inherited Hemoglobin Disorders
    • Further Research
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 35. Respiratory Diseases of Adults
    Frank E. Speizer, Susan Horton, Jane Batt, and Arthur S. Slutsky.
    • Acute Diseases: Pneumonia and Influenza
    • Chronic Respiratory Diseases: Nature, Causes, and Burden
    • Occupational Lung Disease and Other Respiratory Diseases
    • General Approach to Lowering Risk of Adult Respiratory Disease
    • Future Research Needs
    • References
  • Chapter 36. Diseases of the Kidney and the Urinary System
    John Dirks, Giuseppe Remuzzi, Susan Horton, Arrigo Schieppati, and S. Adibul Hasan Rizvi.
    • Causes and Characteristics of the Burden of Diseases
    • Causes of Diseases of the Kidney and Urinary System
    • Global Perspectives in Relation to RRT
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • References
  • Chapter 37. Skin Diseases
    Roderick Hay, Sandra E. Bendeck, Suephy Chen, Roberto Estrada, Anne Haddix, Tonya McLeod, and Antone Mahé.
    • Prevalence of Skin Diseases
    • Patterns of Skin Diseases at the Community Level
    • Effective Therapies
    • Skin Diseases
    • Economic Assessments and Skin Diseases in Developing Countries
    • Current Status of Community Control Measures in Dermatology
    • References
  • Chapter 38. Oral and Craniofacial Diseases and Disorders
    Douglas Bratthall, Poul Erik Petersen, Jayanthi Ramanathan Stjernswärd, and L. Jackson Brown.
    • Dental Caries
    • Aspects of Treatment of Cavities and of Caries Disease
    • Periodontal Diseases: Chronic Gingivitis and Chronic Periodontitis
    • Oral Precancer and Cancer
    • Oral Manifestations of HIV/AIDS
    • Noma (Cancrum oris)
    • Developmental Disorders
    • Fluorosis of Teeth
    • Common-Risk-Factor Intervention Programs
    • Research and Future Actions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Oral Health Care
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 39. Unintentional Injuries
    Robyn Norton, Adnan A. Hyder, David Bishai, and Margie Peden.
    • Burden and Causes of Unintentional Injuries
    • Interventions
    • Costs, Cost-Effectiveness, and Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Implementation of Prevention and Control Strategies
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 40. Interpersonal Violence
    Mark L. Rosenberg, Alexander Butchart, James Mercy, Vasant Narasimhan, Hugh Waters, and Maureen S. Marshall.
    • The Nature, Burden, and Causes of Interpersonal Violence
    • Economic Impact of Violence
    • Interventions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Implementation of Prevention Strategies
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 41. Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Promotion
    Sandy Cairncross and Vivian Valdmanis.
    • Water Supply
    • Excreta Disposal
    • Hygiene Promotion
    • Effect on Burden of Disease
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 42. Indoor Air Pollution
    Nigel Bruce, Eva Rehfuess, Sumi Mehta, Guy Hutton, and Kirk Smith.
    • Nature, Causes, and Burden of Condition
    • Interventions and Policy
    • Intervention Costs and Effectiveness
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons from Experience
    • The Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 43. Air and Water Pollution: Burden and Strategies for Control
    Tord Kjellstrom, Madhumita Lodh, Tony McMichael, Geetha Ranmuthugala, Rupendra Shrestha, and Sally Kingsland.
    • Nature, Causes, and Burden of Air and Water Pollution
    • Interventions
    • Intervention Costs and Cost-Effectiveness
    • Economic Benefits of Interventions
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusion: Promises and Pitfalls
    • References
  • Chapter 44. Prevention of Chronic Disease by Means of Diet and Lifestyle Changes
    Walter C. Willett, Jeffrey P. Koplan, Rachel Nugent, Courtenay Dusenbury, Pekka Puska, and Thomas A. Gaziano.
    • Chronic Disease Prevention
    • Interventions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Research and Development Priorities
    • Recommended Priority Interventions
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 45. The Growing Burden of Risk from High Blood Pressure, Cholesterol, and Bodyweight
    Anthony Rodgers, Carlene M. M. Lawes, Thomas Gaziano, and Theo Vos.
    • Epidemiology
    • Burden of the Disease, Condition, or Risk Factor
    • Interventions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 46. Tobacco Addiction
    Prabhat Jha, Frank J. Chaloupka, James Moore, Vendhan Gajalakshmi, Prakash C. Gupta, Richard Peck, Samira Asma, and Witold Zatonski.
    • Smoking Trends
    • Health Consequences of Smoking
    • Rationale for Government Intervention
    • Interventions to Reduce Demand for Tobacco
    • Interventions to Reduce the Supply of Tobacco
    • Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Tobacco-Control Interventions
    • Comprehensive Tobacco-Control Programs
    • Constraints to Effective Tobacco-Control Policies
    • Conclusion
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 47. Alcohol
    Jürgen Rehm, Dan Chisholm, Robin Room, and Alan D. Lopez.
    • Epidemiology of Alcohol Use and Alcohol-related Disease Conditions
    • Burden of Disease Related to High-Risk Alcohol Use
    • Interventions for Reducing High-Risk Drinking
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Economic Benefits of Interventions
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusion
    • References
  • Chapter 48. Illicit Opiate Abuse
    Wayne Hall, Chris Doran, Louisa Degenhardt, and Donald Shepard.
    • Nature, Causes, and Health Consequences of Illicit Opioid Use
    • Contribution of Opioid Dependence to the Global Burden of Disease
    • Interventions for Illicit Opioid Dependence
    • Relevance to Developing Countries
    • Research and Development
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • Annex 48.A: Prevalence of Use, Adverse Health Effects of and Interventions for Cannabis, Cocaine, Amphetamines, and MDMA Use and Dependence
    • References
  • Chapter 49. Learning and Developmental Disabilities
    Maureen S. Durkin, Helen Schneider, Vikram S. Pathania, Karin B. Nelson, Geoffrey C. Solarsh, Nicole Bellows, Richard M. Scheffler, and Karen J. Hofman.
    • LDD and the Global Burden of Disease
    • Impairment, Disability, and Participation
    • Three Levels of Prevention
    • Unintended Consequences of Successful or Partially Successful Interventions
    • Other Factors Leading to Increases in Measured Prevalence
    • Interventions in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
    • Research Agenda for Prevention of Disabilities in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
    • Summary
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 50. Loss of Vision and Hearing
    Joseph Cook, Kevin D. Frick, Rob Baltussen, Serge Resnikoff, Andrew Smith, Jeffrey Mecaskey, and Peter Kilima.
    • Nature, Causes, and Epidemiology of Vision Loss
    • Nature, Causes, and Epidemiology of Hearing Loss
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • References
  • Chapter 51. Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions for Musculoskeletal Conditions
    Luke B. Connelly, Anthony Woolf, and Peter Brooks.
    • Burden of Musculoskeletal Disease
    • Nature, Causes, and Epidemiology of Musculoskeletal Conditions
    • Preventive Strategies
    • Treatments
    • Economic Issues
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions for OA
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions for RA
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions for Other Musculoskeletal Conditions
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 52. Pain Control for People with Cancer and AIDS
    Kathleen M. Foley, Judith L. Wagner, David E. Joranson, and Hellen Gelband.
    • Burden of Pain from Cancer and AIDS
    • Interventions for Pain Relief
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness
    • Implementation of Strategies to Improve Pain Control
    • Recommendations for Research and Development
    • Conclusions
    • References
• Strengthening Health Systems
  • Chapter 53. Public Health Surveillance: A Tool for Targeting and Monitoring Interventions
    Peter Nsubuga, Mark E. White, Stephen B. Thacker, Mark A. Anderson, Stephen B. Blount, Claire V. Broome, Tom M. Chiller, Victoria Espitia, Rubina Imtiaz, Dan Sosin, Donna F. Stroup, Robert V. Tauxe, Maya Vijayaraghavan, and Murray Trostle.
    • Definitions and Basic Concepts
    • Objectives of Surveillance Systems
    • Principles and Uses of Surveillance
    • Establishing and Maintaining a Surveillance System
    • Analysis and Dissemination of Surveillance Data
    • Surveillance as a Component of National Public Health Systems
    • Surveillance as a Tool to Improve Public Health
    • Selected Surveillance Strategies
    • The Role of Surveillance in Major Outbreaks
    • Surveillance for Specific Conditions
    • Economics of Public Health Surveillance Systems
    • Future of Surveillance
    • Global Surveillance Networks
    • Research Agenda in Public Health Surveillance
    • Conclusion
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 54. Information to Improve Decision Making for Health
    Sally K. Stansfield, Julia Walsh, Ndola Prata, and Timothy Evans.
    • Introduction
    • Systems and Supply of Health Information
    • Benefits, Costs, and Cost-Effectiveness of Improved Information
    • Financing of Improved Health Information
    • Implementation of Change: Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 55. Drug Resistance
    Ramanan Laxminarayan, Zulfiqar Bhutta, Adrian Duse, Philip Jenkins, Thomas O'Brien, Iruka N. Okeke, Ariel Pablo-Mendez, and Keith P. Klugman.
    • Risk Factors
    • Economic Burden
    • Interventions
    • Implementation of Strategies: Two Lessons from Experience
    • Agenda for Action
    • Conclusion
    • References
  • Chapter 56. Community Health and Nutrition Programs
    John B. Mason, David Sanders, Philip Musgrove, Soekirman, and Rae Galloway.
    • What Is Known about Efficacy and Effectiveness
    • Community- and Facility-based Programs
    • Success Factors
    • Community-based Programs—What Are They?
    • Programmatic Factors
    • Contextual Factors
    • Results
    • Future Applications
    • Research Needs
    • References
  • Chapter 57. Contraception
    Ruth Levine, Ana Langer, Nancy Birdsall, Gaverick Matheny, Merrick Wright, and Angela Bayer.
    • Nature, Causes, and Burden of the Conditions That Can Be Addressed
    • Interventions
    • Organization of Family-Planning Programs
    • Intervention Cost and Cost-Effectiveness
    • Equity: Distributing the Benefits of Subsidies
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • References
  • Chapter 58. School-based Health and Nutrition Programs
    Donald Bundy, Sheldon Shaeffer, Matthew Jukes, Kathleen Beegle, Amaya Gillespie, Lesley Drake, Seung-hee Frances Lee, Anna-Maria Hoffman, Jack Jones, Arlene Mitchell, Delia Barcelona, Balla Camara, Chuck Golmar, Lorenzo Savioli, Malick Sembene, Tsutomu Takeuchi, and Cream Wright.
    • Infectious Disease and School-Age Children
    • Malnutrition, Noninfectious Disease, and Health and Education
    • Estimating the Burden of Disease
    • Interventions
    • Cost-Effectiveness of Intervention
    • Economic Benefits of Intervention
    • Implementation of Programs and Lessons from Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 59. Adolescent Health Programs
    Elizabeth Lule, James E. Rosen, Susheela Singh, James C. Knowles, and Jere R. Behrman.
    • Nature and Causes of the Burden of Disease in Young People
    • Interventions
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Economic Analysis
    • Program Implementation and Lessons of Experience
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 60. Occupational Health
    Linda Rosenstock, Mark Cullen, and Marilyn Fingerhut.
    • Nature and Causes of Occupational Health Conditions in the Developing World
    • Global Burden of Disease from Occupational Health Risks
    • Interventions
    • Economic Aspects of Intervention
    • Implementation
    • Research Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 61. Natural Disaster Mitigation and Relief
    Claude de Ville de Goyet, Ricardo Zapata Marti, and Claudio Osorio.
    • Disasters as a Public Health Condition
    • Interventions: From Response to Prevention
    • Intervention Cost, Cost-Effectiveness, and Economic Benefits
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience and Challenges Faced
    • The Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgements
    • References
  • Chapter 62. Control and Eradication
    Mark Miller, Scott Barrett, and D. A. Henderson.
    • Definitions
    • Frameworks for Eradication
    • Disease-specific Case Studies
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 63. Integrated Management of the Sick Child
    Cesar G. Victora, Taghreed Adam, Jennifer Bryce, and David B. Evans.
    • Nature, Causes, and Burden of Child Mortality
    • Policy Shift to Integrated Management
    • Interventions
    • Intervention Cost and Cost-Effectiveness
    • Implementation of Programs: Lessons of Experience
    • The Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 64. General Primary Care
    Stephen Tollman, Jane Doherty, and Jo-Ann Mulligan.
    • The Scope of General Primary Care Practice
    • The Effectiveness of General Primary Care
    • The Cost-Effectiveness of Primary Care Interventions
    • Scaling Up
    • A Research and Development Agenda for General Primary Care
    • Conclusions
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 65. The District Hospital
    Mike English, Claudio F. Lanata, Isaac Ngugi, and Peter C. Smith.
    • Definitions, Basic Concepts, and Framework
    • Economics of District Hospitals: A Summary of Reported Experience
    • Factors Influencing District Hospitals' Performance
    • Effecting Change with Cross-Cutting Interventions
    • The Future: Research and Information Needs
    • References
  • Chapter 66. Referral Hospitals
    Martin Hensher, Max Price, and Sarah Adomakoh.
    • Definition and Characteristics
    • Functions and Benefits
    • Determinants of an Appropriate Balance of Referral-Level Care
    • Current Balance of Care in Practice
    • Getting Better Value for Money from the Hospital System
    • Concluding Comments
    • Acknowledgments
    • References
  • Chapter 67. Surgery
    Haile T. Debas, Richard Gosselin, Colin McCord, and Amardeep Thind.
    • Nature, Causes, and Burden of Surgical Conditions
    • Interventions
    • Costs and Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions
    • References
  • Chapter 68. Emergency Medical Services
    Olive C. Kobusingye, Adnan A. Hyder, David Bishai, Manjul Joshipura, Eduardo Romero Hicks, and Charles Mock.
    • Definitions
    • Burden of Disease
    • Interventions for Emergency Care: Systems, Structures, and Organization
    • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience
    • The Research and Development Agenda
    • Conclusions: Promises and Pitfalls
    • References
  • Chapter 69. Complementary and Alternative Medicine
    Haile T. Debas, Ramanan Laxminarayan, and Stephen E. Straus.
    • Definitions and Domains of Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Traditional Medicine
    • Demography, Use, Toxicity, and Efficacy
    • Economics of Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Traditional Medicine
    • Expanding the Beneficial Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Traditional Medicine
    • Lessons Learned and Implementation
    • The Research and Development Agenda
    • References
  • Chapter 70. Improving the Quality of Care in Developing Countries
    John W. Peabody, Mario M. Taguiwalo, David A. Robalino, and Julio Frenk.
    • Quality Definition and Population Framework
    • Quality of Care in Developing Countries
    • Policy Interventions to Improve Quality
    • Measuring Quality
    • Economic Benefits and Costs of Quality Care
    • Research Agenda on Quality
    • Conclusion
    • References
  • Chapter 71. Health Workers: Building and Motivating the Workforce
    Charles Hongoro and Charles Normand.
    • Health Care Provision and Associated Human Resource Needs
    • Health Care Staff
    • Health Worker Incentives
    • Advice for Governments
    • Research and Development Agenda
    • References
  • Chapter 72. Ensuring Supplies of Appropriate Drugs and Vaccines
    Susan Foster, Richard Laing, Bjørn Melgaard, and Michel Zaffran.
    • Drug Policies
    • Vaccine Policies
    • Selection of Drugs
    • Selection of Vaccines
    • Procurement of Drugs
    • Procurement of Vaccines
    • Quality Assurance for Pharmaceuticals and Vaccines
    • The WHO Prequalification Schemes
    • Local Production of Pharmaceuticals
    • Storage and Distribution of Essential Drugs and Vaccines
    • Prescription and Rational Use of Drugs
    • Dispensing
    • Adherence
    • Financing Issues
    • Sustainable Financing of Vaccines and Immunizations
    • Issues for the Future
    • Vaccine Research Priorities
    • Priorities for Pharmaceutical Research
    • Conclusion
    • References
  • Chapter 73. Strategic Management of Clinical Services
    Alexander S. Preker, Martin McKee, Andrew Mitchell, and Suwit Wilbulpolprasert.
    • What Is Management?
    • Managing Clinical Services in Different Settings
    • The Specifics: What Works?
    • Summary
    • References
• Glossary

This volume was funded in part by a grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / the World Bank, the World Health Organization, and the Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the executive directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent, the World Health Organization, or the Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health.

The World Bank, the World Health Organization, and the Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgement on the part of the World Bank, the World Health Organization, or the Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.